Leafy vegetables

We consider here leafy vegetables that were either grown or gathered, or both. Four types are listed in the Bible: bitter herbs, garlic, leeks, and onions. Apart from these, we know from excavations in the Near East and from Greek and Roman literature that other species of leafy vegetables, such as garden peas and fenugreek (literally “Greek hay”), were harvested and eaten for centuries and even millennia before Bible times. They were almost certainly eaten in Bible times, even though we find no reference to them in Scripture.

The Hebrew word ‘esev, which occurs thirty-three times in the Old Testament, means “herbs,” usually edible ones (see, for example Genesis 9:3). According to Zohary, the Hebrew phrase ‘esev hassadeh (“grass/plants of the field”) presumably refers to edible herbs, pot herbs, and other plants that were gathered in the wild (see, for example, 2 Kings 19:26). However, as domestication was still going on in Bible times, it is sometimes impossible to know whether a food item was cultivated or gathered.

Another generic Hebrew expression for vegetables is ’oroth found in 2 Kings 4:39, where a young prophet goes out to gather ’oroth in the field. Zohary, noting that the incident took place near Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, suggests that ’oroth may well refer to the garden rocket, known in Arabic as jarjir. His case rests on the fact that the Talmud equates ’oroth with gargir. However, the context suggests a general word, so “vegetables” or “herbs” is still the best guess here. This is supported by the fact that the word is plural in form, as well as by the Aramaic translation, which uses a word that is unquestionably generic. ’Oroth comes from the Hebrew root ’arah (meaning “to gather, collect, pluck”), which also supports that it has here the general idea of “things gathered.”

Another generic Hebrew word here is chatsir (occurring twenty-two times), which Zohary says first referred to “leek” (see Numbers 11:5), but later changed to mean “grazing grass” or “field herbs” (see, for example, Psalm 37:2).

The Hebrew noun deshe’ (occurring fourteen times) is a general term for any plant. Genesis 1:11 uses this noun and it verbal form, which are rendered “put forth vegetation.”

Another general Hebrew word for vegetables is yaraq, which occurs in Deuteronomy 11:10 1 Kings 21:2 Proverbs 15:17. In 1 Kings 21:2 King Ahab covets Naboth’s vineyard to use as his gan yaraq (“vegetable garden”). This sort of expression can cause problems for translators because of the taxonomy and availability of generic terms. Many languages will have words for various types of agricultural plots depending on what is cultivated therein. Naboth’s vineyard was right next to the king’s palace, so the word for “vegetable garden” needs to be appropriate to that situation. If no specific word is available, translators may use a phrase such as “place where I can grow vegetables” or “place where I can plant things.”

The Hebrew word zeru‘a /zero‘nim (Leviticus 11:37 Isaiah 61:11 Daniel 1:12 Daniel 1:16) is a nominal form of the verb “to plant,” and it literally means “thing sown.” Some versions have rendered it “seed,” “plant” or “what is sown,” depending on the context. Several versions use “vegetables” in Daniel 1:12 Daniel 1:16.

The Greek word lachanon is a generic word for vegetables in Romans 14:2. In Luke 11:42 it includes mint and rue, so it is appropriately translated “herb.” RSV renders it “shrubs” in Matthew 13:32 and Mark 4:32 since it refers to the mature plant of the mustard seed in those passages.